Theodora & the Nika Riots
We take a look at Theodora, one of the earliest Feminists, her remarkable rise to power and how she helped quell a vicious riot, saving the empire.
Echoes in time
“History doesn't repeat, but it often rhymes.” - Mark Twain (probably)
For most people living in Ireland, the harrowing events of Bloody Sunday in 1920 are etched deeply in the national consciousness. Two years after the doomed but influential armed uprising during Easter Week in April 1916, Sinn Féin won a landslide victory in Ireland, with a mandate for Irish Independence. The following year, in 1919, they formed a breakaway Government and the Irish War for Independence began in earnest.
Amidst the revolutionary fervour of the times, one figure loomed larger than others: Michael Collins. A tall, handsome Corkman, he led a covert squad of twelve, nicknamed the Twelve Apostles.
Collins orchestrated a relentless campaign targeting the linchpins of British rule in Ireland – chiefly, the intelligence operatives and informers who were the eyes and ears of the occupying force.
On the chilly morning of November 21, 1920, Dublin awoke to the most audacious operation so far in the bitter war. The Twelve Apostles struck across the city, leaving fifteen British agents dead before the day had fully dawned, assassinating them as they slept — in their homes, hostels or hotels.
The response from the British Authorities was swift and panicked, later that afternoon, they raided a Gaelic Football match in Croke Park, opening fire without provocation, killing fourteen unarmed civilians, including a woman, a player and two children; many more were injured.
Travelling back in time, roughly fourteen hundred years to the year 532 AD, to the beautiful gleaming city of Constantinople, we can see a remarkably similar event take place.
Constantinople
In the 6th century, Constantinople, now known as Istanbul, was the pulsating heart of the Eastern Roman Empire and arguably the largest and most spectacular city globally. After the Roman Empire split into two to manage its vast territories more effectively, the Western half succumbed to barbarian invasions. In contrast, the Eastern part, with Constantinople at its core, thrived. This magnificent city, straddling Europe and Asia, was a crucial cultural and commercial nexus between East and West. Its formidable walls safeguarded the empire's wealth and heritage.
Constantinople was much more than an imperial stronghold; it was a vibrant melting pot where diverse cultures and religions mingled. As a beacon of Christianity, it was dotted with splendid churches and religious institutions. The city also served as a custodian of ancient Greek and Roman knowledge, preserving these intellectual treasures through its libraries and schools at a time when Western Europe was plunged into the Dark Ages. Constantinople continued the Roman traditions for a millennium until its fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453
The Rise of Theodora
Empress Theodora, one the most influential and powerful women in the annals of history, was born around 500 AD. Her early life was a far cry from the imperial grandeur she would later come to enjoy.
Theodora's father, Acacius, worked as a bear trainer at Constantinople's Hippodrome. This chariot-racing stadium was both an arena for sport and the centre of the city's public life. Tragedy struck with Acacius's premature death, leaving Theodora's mother to fend for her family. The mother (whose name is not known), resourceful and determined, secured a place for Theodora and her sisters as performers in the Hippodrome.
Theodora's early years were spent under the Hippodrome's grand arches, working as an actress and dancer. In those times, the acting profession had a very low social standing. Theodora would never forget these early, humble and precarious experiences. Later, she would go on to wield considerable political influence in a society where women were mostly relegated to the margins, and her advocacy and actions led to significant advancements in women's rights, especially for marginalised and vulnerable women.
Entering her twenties, Theodora embraced a profound change, converting to Christianity. She left Constantinople and spent years travelling, ending on the shores of North Africa, finding purpose in a monastic community, where she worked as a wool spinner, a far cry from entertaining the crazed masses in the hippodrome.
Her remarkable intelligence and beauty caught the attention of agents working for Justinian, a rising star in the Byzantine political arena and the nephew of the then Emperor Justin I.
Even Theodora’s enemies, of which there would be many, described her as enthrallingly beautiful, with an intellect to match, and the moment Justinian laid eyes on Theodora, he was captivated. Justinian had not yet ascended to the throne, but he wielded his large influence to change the law, making it possible for a member of the imperial court to marry an actress. Theodora's past, her time as an actress, would be a detail that critics would use constantly against her and Justinian.
Justinian, who would go on to become known as 'Justinian the Great,' had his eyes on the Imperial crown, and his ascent to power was calculated and ruthless. While working to become the close confidant of the current Emperor Justin, several strategic assassinations positioned him ever closer to the throne. He became the de facto ruler as Justin succumbed to senility, and then upon Justin's death in 527, Justinian seamlessly transitioned into the role of the sole emperor, marking the beginning of a new era under his reign.
The Reign of Justinian and Theodora
Upon ascending to power, Justinian and Theodora, both young, hugely ambitious and full of reformist zeal, embarked on a series of ambitious reforms and projects. Both committed Christians, they were committed to a vision of a single God, a single Empire (that must include Rome), and a single source of power, the imperial court.
Their vision for the empire fell into three transformative categories.
Legal Revolution: They undertook the colossal task of overhauling Roman law, aligning it with the needs of a modernizing world. This unprecedented endeavour not only streamlined legal codes but also introduced progressive changes, particularly in women's rights. The penalty for rape was increased, women were granted more rights in divorces, and prostitutes were given legal protection.
Reconquest of Lost Territories: Both rulers shared a belief that the Roman Empire's prestige hinged on reclaiming its former territories, especially Rome, but also including North Africa and Spain. Despite Italy’s diminished status as a provincial outpost under Ostrogothic control, they viewed its recovery as non-negotiable. Their eventual success in recapturing Rome and other lost lands, achieved after a gruelling two-decade-long campaign, came at a steep price, draining the empire's resources.
Architectural and Urban Development: Under Justinian's reign, Constantinople and the wider empire witnessed a construction renaissance. The most iconic among these was the Hagia Sophia, a jewel of Byzantine architecture celebrated for its revolutionary dome. The Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, adorned with its stunning mosaics, stands as another testament to this era of architectural grandeur. Justinian's vision extended beyond religious monuments; he fortified the empire's defences, as seen in the robust walls of Constantinople (that would keep out invaders for many years to come), and improved public infrastructure, including aqueducts and baths, enhancing urban life across the empire. When he died, Justinian left behind a stunningly modern, beautiful and powerful Constantinople.
To realize their grand vision, Justinian and Theodora faced one fundamental challenge: money. Justinian sought revenue through various innovative means: a reduction in corruption, devaluing the currency, and nationalising profitable industries. However, none of this was enough, so he turned to taxes. Lots and lots of new taxes. Levies on land, sales, and certain professions swelled the state coffers, but as you can imagine, not without a deep cost to his popularity.
The increased tax burden was deeply unpopular with the ever-important Roman mob, but Justinian also made a lot of powerful enemies whose source of income had been destroyed or disrupted by ending the corrupt practices that had ruled for many years. Justinian had never been particularly popular, but after the effect of all the new taxes began to take hold, the city teetered on the brink of turmoil, needing but a single spark to come aflame.
The Nika riots
That crucial spark was kindled in the Hippodrome. Imagine an ancient sports arena, grand in scale, its U-shaped track embraced by tiers of seats teeming with wild & eager spectators — just like in 'Ben Hur.' The Hippodrome was more than just a venue for horse and chariot racing; it was a centre for entertainment social, and political life. Of all the hippodromes that dotted the ancient world, Constantinople was the most renowned and vibrant, a place where the spirit of the city was most alive and palpable.
Just like now, the Romans had sporting teams to which they would pledge allegiance for life. However, the line between sports and politics was blurred; what began as chariot racing teams evolved into potent political factions, each aligned with different elements of society. Among these, the Blues (Venetoi) and the Greens (Prasinoi) stood out as the most influential and dominant factions.
The Blues, at the time, were associated with the upper classes and often assumed to be implicitly supported by the imperial court. Justinian himself had been affiliated with the Blues before his ascent to power. The greens represented the lower classes, merchants, peasants, and urban workers. Both teams also had firm ideas about some of the religious schisms that were present at the time.
A brawl between the Blues and Greens in the Hippodrome took a nasty turn, culminating in a murder within its walls — a grave transgression in this public arena. In response, authorities swiftly arrested members from both factions, sentencing them to death, an act to be carried out in the Hippodrome itself.
As the executions commenced, a twist of fate saw the hangings of one member from each faction fail, leaving them miraculously alive. United, both factions raised their voices in a powerful chant of 'Nika' (which means win!) urging clemency. The two factions acting in concert was very rare and should have been a warning sign for Justinian.
Justinian denied their pleas, and the situation rapidly deteriorated. The unified chant of 'Nika' transformed from a plea to a battle cry. United in outrage at the lack of mercy, as well as all of the long-standing unhappiness, the rival factions joined forces, their anger spilling out of the Hippodrome and into the streets, igniting a full-blown riot across Constantinople.
The two lucky men were bundled out of the arena by priests and given refuge in a church, although unfortunately, the historical record doesn’t detail their subsequent fate.
As the unrest surged, the riot rapidly engulfed Constantinople. Fueled by fervour and fury, the rioters unleashed a torrent of destruction, setting ablaze buildings, looting, and leaving a trail of vandalism in their wake. Iconic structures, including the magnificent and new Hagia Sophia, were not spared; they suffered significant damage or were entirely consumed by the relentless flames. The devastation was so widespread that vast swathes of the ancient city were reduced to smouldering ruins.
As the city engulfed itself in chaos, Justinian and the imperial court sought refuge within the imposing walls of the Great Palace of Constantinople. Strategically situated near the Hippodrome, this fortress-like residence was a sanctuary designed for just such turbulent events. Within its fortifications, he watched as the riots raged throughout the city.
Justinian received reports that the mob pronounced a new emperor and had begun to target symbols of Justinian's power. As Justinian began to make plans to flee, fearing a violent end at the hands of the mob, Theodora stepped into the historical limelight, poised to deliver a speech that would etch her name indelibly into history.
“My lords, the present occasion is too serious to allow me to follow the convention that a woman should not speak in a man’s council. Those whose interests are threatened by extreme danger should think only of the wisest course of action, not of conventions.
In my opinion, flight is not the right course, even if it should bring us to safety. It is impossible for a person, having been born into this world, not to die; but for one who has reigned it is intolerable to be a fugitive. May I never be deprived of this purple robe, and may I never see the day when those who meet me do not call me empress.
If you wish to save yourself, my lord, there is no difficulty. We are rich; over there is the sea, and yonder are the ships. Yet reflect for a moment whether, when you have once escaped to a place of security, you would not gladly exchange such safety for death. As for me, I agree with the adage that the royal purple is the noblest shroud.”
Theodora's impassioned speech, defying traditional gender roles and showcasing both strategic acumen and unusual courage, changed Justinian's mind. Given an extra store of resolve, he formulated a plan. Narses, a loyal and trusted eunuch, was despatched into the heart of the turmoil at the Hippodrome, where the Blue faction's leaders were gathered. With a substantial sum of gold in hand, Narses safely navigated the crowds and approached the faction's leaders. Reminding them of Justinian's past allegiance to the Blues, he combined promises of wealth and influence with the persuasive power of the gold he bore. His efforts bore fruit as the Blues, swayed by the offer, began to disengage from the rioting. This defection significantly weakened the rioters' unity and momentum.
On the following day, as the Hippodrome prepared for its scheduled chariot races, a formidable force of troops, led by two generals fiercely loyal to Justinian, encircled the venue. They sealed off all exits, effectively trapping the crowd inside. Then, with grim resolve, the troops moved in. The ensuing action was ruthless: the soldiers, armed and battle-hardened, carried out a merciless slaughter within the Hippodrome's walls. According to the historian Procopius, our most contemporary eyewitness, the death toll reached a staggering thirty thousand*. It’s hard to imagine a more terrible scene, legions of armoured soldiers using swords and shields to massacre crowds of unfortunate unarmed civilians.
(*Modern historians think this figure has been inflated, but not greatly.)
Aftermath
In the wake of the revolt's brutal suppression, Justinian seized the opportunity to consolidate his power. He methodically purged the empire of any factions or groups that had shown opposition to his rule. With a determined vision, he embarked on the ambitious task of reconstructing Constantinople, reshaping the city to reflect his ideals and authority. The Hagia Sophia was rebuilt with the terrific dome we know today. Beyond the physical rebuilding, his efforts extended to the very structure of governance — he undertook significant reforms to centralize power, enhancing the efficiency of the empire's administration. This included a thorough reorganization of the Byzantine bureaucracy and a notable strengthening of the imperial office, ensuring his control was both absolute and unchallenged.
6th century Roman society had a different attitude toward the mass slaughter of civilians than, thankfully, we do now, so by and large, things went on in Constantinople, Justinian & Theodora ruled for many years to come, and of all the accusations levelled at them by their detractors, the brutal suppression of the riot is barely mentioned.
But in Ireland in 1920, the public outcry over the events of Bloody Sunday in both Ireland and England hastened Ireland’s steps towards independence. It would be remiss of me not to also mention the Amritsar Massacre in 1919, where, in similar events, British Troops massacred a large number (circa one thousand) of unarmed Indian civilians. This, too, helped speed up the cause of Indian independence and was considered a matter of shame for the British rulers.
As a final note, the tale of Justinian and Theodora is intriguing not just for its content but also for how it reaches us. The main first-hand account we have of these events is 'The Secret History' by Procopius, a contemporary of their reign. However, Procopius harboured a deep animosity towards both Justinian and Theodora. His work, sealed and only revealed posthumously, reads less like a historical account and more like a calculated character assassination.
It’s a truly remarkable document that portrays the couple as possibly the two worst humans to ever grace this planet. It’s a testament to the work of modern historians that we know so much about their reign and can pick through the lies and exaggerations, to come at some version of the truth. He accuses both of being in league with the devil and accuses Theodora of sexual perversions that are frankly impossible.
Some historians speculate that 'The Secret History' was Procopius's contingency plan, a kind of insurance policy should Justinian ever be deposed. This is particularly interesting given Procopius's other public writings, which are effusive in their praise of Justinian's architectural and military achievements. Perhaps he worried about being too closely related to a regime he felt was likely to be toppled.
Given all that, I have to share one of the best passages from the Secret Histories, just bear in mind it almost certainly has nothing in common with the truth. Procopius is discussing Theodora.
“And often even in the theatre, before the eyes of the whole people, she stripped off her clothing and moved about naked through their midst, having only a girdle about her private parts and her groins, not, however, that she was ashamed to display these too to the populace, but because no person is permitted to enter there entirely naked, but must have at least a girdle about the groins.
Clothed in this manner, she sprawled out and lay on her back on the ground. And some slaves, whose duty this was, sprinkled grains of barley over her private parts, and geese, which happened to have been provided for this very purpose, picked them off with their beaks, one by one, and ate them.
And when she got up, she not only did not blush, but even acted as if she took pride in this strange performance. For she was not merely shameless herself, but also a contriver of shameless deeds above all others.”
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Sources
The best account of this story, with all the caveats listed above, is 'The Secret History' by Procopius. It’s well-written and entertaining.
A wonderful modern overview of the Eastern Roman Empire Byzantium: The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire - Judith Herrin
The best account of Theodora’s life: The Empress Theodora: Partner of Justinian - by James Allan Evans
Genuinely fascinating story Daragh, I definitely want to read more about Justinian and Theodora, I’ll check out your sources.